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Environmental effects

The above image shows three phases of surface mines in Charleston County, WV (12). Displayed are terracing, flattening, and valley fill-in, all stages of surface mining (8). Under the SMCRA regulations, land must be returned to its "approximate original contour" after mining, however the Department of Environmental Protection does not enforce the regulations, causing residents to file civil suits against the coal companies, creating the ripple effect of mine closings and ultimately forcing residents to "settle" on corrections to the landscape that do not equal the regulations (11). In assessments by higher authorities, such as the EPA, coal companies in West Virginia have been cited in the triple digits for violations in valley fill-ins (13). The EPA has estimated that approximately 700 miles of freshwater streams and creeks have been filled in by coal sludge, ash, and overburden (top layer of removal including top-soil and plant life), despite the provision in SMCRA that forbids the disruption of active streams (8,13). Large-scale environmental effects include habitat fragmentation, pollution of groundwater due to sulfur and coal sludge, and air pollution due to coal ash and coke-production.

Social and political implications

The social implications of surface mining are vast, including disruption of schools and their programs, break-up of community ties, and a waning sense of national pride (8). If a mine were to shut down, like the fate threatened by Arch Coal for the Dal-Tex mine, the surrounding community at the county level suffers immediately and directly (8). With a loss of tax revenue from the operating mine, services like education and crime prevention are immediately cut, resulting in unsafe areas with few or no operating schools (8). Communities are often split in their support of either the coal companies or the reform and enforcement of laws restricting mining operations; thus leading to fights, rallies, and general public unrest (8). With a disappearing landscape, comes a disappearing natural beauty of the land, and thus a waning pride for residents' homeland where they may or may not have spent their entire lives.

Political voices serve to protect both the people as well as special interest groups. Judicial systems serve to award or, more rarely, deny permits requested by coal companies to mine certain areas. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act was passed in 1977 stating that the land succumbed to surface mining must be restored to its original or better condition than before mining (8). Residents have claimed that the Department of Environmental Protection does not enforce this act and some have gone as far as to file suit against the mining companies for not following regulations (8). Politicians have been known to accept as much as $500,000 in campaign donations and other fringe benefits from the coal companies, with the expectation that said politician will respond appropriately in terms of deregulation (8). Such is the case, for example, between former Governor Cecil Underwood and King Coal (8). The biggest paradox for surface mining exists at the political level, because while the residents are speaking out against injustice to the people and the environment made by coal companies; those coal companies speak out in dollars and cents. Image (10).

Effect on local economy

In places where coal mining, particularly surface mining are prevalent, almost the entire economy derives from the coal operations. Coal companies must pay royalties to the federal and local governments for whatever they produce in those areas, so in many counties in, for example, southern West Virginia, rely entirely on coal companies for their tax revenues (4, 8). Also, local residents provide the skilled workmanship necessary for mining and receive their incomes by working in the mines (8). In short, without the mines, the residents would not have a base for an economy at this point. Some residents actually make money by moving out of the regions altogether; by selling off their land to the coal companies, they are able to move into surrounding areas, however, these areas are not always "better" in terms of safety, security, and quality of life (8). For example, on Kayford mountain in West Virginia, a group of residents own a 50-acre plot of land that covers about one million dollars worth of high-quality coal, but are unwilling to sell the land due to cultural ties (8). These residents make their money by renting vacation cabins atop the mountain to those still interested, despite the bleak scenery surrounding the mountain (8). When residents refused to sell land and took Arch Coal to trial over the issue of surface mining legalities and land rights, the company retaliated by immediately and permanently laying off 30 workers at one mine and another 300 temporary layoffs at various other mines; causing those workers to virtually lose their livelihood (8). Because only about 40% of the workers belonged to the United Mine Workers of America, numerous protests were struck to influence better conditions for the workers and surrounding communities and to prevent the coal companies from shutting down operations in the area, and effectively shutting down the economy (8). Image (9).

Effect on global economy

Via the Bureau of Land Management agency, federal government owns just over half of the coal reserves in the United States in surface land area, as well as additional reserves in mineral rights under the Mineral Leasing Act (4). This means that while a private land owner may have the deed to his/her land, the federal government may, at any time, invoke its right to lease the land to mining companies for extraction, due to the presence of mineral deposits in the bedrock. In a region where coal has been found, a mining establishment must first submit an application to the BLM with anticipated plans; then, if approved, the BLM will set a leasing price (4). If federally-owned lands are being leased, the price will be set at approximately $3 per acre annually; if privately-owned lands are being leased, the price will be set based on "fair market value" annually(4). In addition, the companies must pay royalties on the production value, between 8% and 12.5%, depending on the type of mining, underground or surface, respectively (4). Pricing for the public depends on several factors including transportation (encompassing about half of the market cost), energy content/quality, taxes, profit, and production costs, in addition to passing along the leasing fees to the consumer (4). Most of the market cost for coal is believed to be controlled entirely by distance from the mining operations to the major energy markets (4). Funding for these leasing and mining operations comes from large-scale banks loans from major banking entities like JPMorgan Chase, similar to the way homeowners acquire mortgages on the smaller-scale (6). Image (7).

On the use of coal

In the United States, varying qualities of coal are rated based on energy content (older=higher energy) and are used as fuel for "space heat and electric power generation" (4). About half of the coal produced in the U.S. comes from Wyoming and West Virginia, and surrounding areas, with the western production areas using mainly surface mining, and eastern areas using underground mining (4). Coal accounts for more than half of the electric power generation and about one quarter of the total fuel/energy demand (4). In addition to fuel, by-products from coal processing (coke) can also be used to produce metal alloys, such as steel (2). According to the Bethlehem Coal Company in Long Island, NY, "Coal is Buried Sunshine" which was first mined in response to the steam engine expansion, and today compounds from coke processing also give rise to such everyday products as perfume, coal tar, medicines, inks, detergents, and many others (5). Image (5).

On the formation of coal

Coal is a carbon-rich mineral resource often found within mountains and is a heavily used fuel source for most of the Western world (1). Most of the coal that is mined today has been in formation since the Carboniferous Period, around 300 million years; deriving from organic matter, such as forests and land animals, that were rapidly buried under sand and shallow water before beginning to decompose and undergo geologic processes (2). The geologic processes involved include tectonic plate collision creating immense heat and pressure, thus crushing the sediment into more and more compacted forms of carbon-rich deposit (2). The longer this process, the higher the carbon content, and the lower the water content and volatile matter (2). Image (3).